- Scan-ID:
- 32a258dc-f4e7-4e12-839e-9f5e4130029eBeendet
- Eingereichte URL:
- https://physics.info/
- Bericht beendet:
Links · 11 gefunden
Die von der Seite ausgehenden identifizierten Links
Link | Text |
---|---|
https://hypertextbook.com/chaos/ | chaos |
https://hypertextbook.com/eworld/ | eworld |
https://hypertextbook.com/facts/ | facts |
https://hypertextbook.com/bent/ | get bent |
https://glennelert.us | ©1998–2024 Glenn ElertAuthor, Illustrator, Webmaster |
https://www.behance.net/elert | Behance |
https://www.instagram.com/elert | |
https://www.twitter.com/glennelert | |
https://www.youtube.com/GlennElert | YouTube |
https://hypertextbook.com | hypertextbook.com |
JavaScript-Variablen · 35 gefunden
Globale JavaScript-Variablen, die in das Window Object einer Seite geladen werden, sind Variablen, die außerhalb von Funktionen deklariert werden und von jeder Stelle des Codes innerhalb des aktuellen Bereichs zugänglich sind
Name | Typ |
---|---|
0 | object |
onbeforetoggle | object |
documentPictureInPicture | object |
onscrollend | object |
$ | function |
jQuery | function |
__tcfapi | function |
__uspapi | function |
gtag | function |
dataLayer | object |
Konsolenprotokoll-Meldungen · 3 gefunden
In der Web-Konsole protokollierte Meldungen
Typ | Kategorie | Protokoll |
---|---|---|
log | other |
|
warning | other |
|
warning | other |
|
HTML
Der HTML-Rohtext der Seite
<!DOCTYPE html><html lang="en" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/WebPage"><head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<title>The Physics Hypertextbook</title>
<link rel="canonical" href="https://physics.info">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://omniscientwalnut.com/walnut.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://omniscientwalnut.com/walpaper.css" media="print">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://omniscientwalnut.com/physics.css">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, viewport-fit=cover">
<!-- ORDINARY PHYSICS PAGES -->
<!-- robots -->
<!-- Я твой слуга. Я твой работник. -->
<!-- author -->
<link rel="author" href="https://glennelert.us">
<meta name="author" content="Glenn Elert">
<!-- break out of frames -->
<script async="" src="//cse.google.com/adsense/search/async-ads.js"></script><script async="" type="text/javascript" src="https://cmp.inmobi.com/tcfv2/53/cmp2.js?referer=physics.info"></script><script async="" src="https://buttons-config.sharethis.com/js/64432e98e412510019625a9d.js"></script><script type="text/javascript" async="" src="https://www.google.com/cse/cse.js?cx=010156806650563000082:WMX1678554632"></script><script async="" type="text/javascript" src="https://cmp.inmobi.com/choice/2cH8w1NPvzsTT/physics.info/choice.js?tag_version=V3"></script><script>if (window!= top) top.location.href=location.href</script>
<!-- jQuery for scrolltop -->
<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/3.6.0/jquery.min.js"></script>
<!-- Google Structured Data https://developers.google.com/structured-data -->
<script type="application/ld+json">
{ "@context": "https://schema.org",
"@type": "Organization",
"name": "hypertextbook",
"url": "https://hypertextbook.com",
"logo": "https://omniscientwalnut.com/eglobe.png" }
</script>
<script type="application/ld+json">
{ "@context": "https://schema.org",
"@type": "WebSite",
"name": "The Physics Hypertextbook",
"url": "https://physics.info" }
</script>
<script type="application/ld+json">
{ "@context": "https://schema.org",
"@type": "Person",
"name": "Glenn Elert",
"description": "Author, illustrator, webmaster. Career science teacher. Citizen of the United States. Omniscient walnut.",
"image": "https://glennelert.us/walnut.png",
"url": "https://glennelert.us",
"sameAs": [ "https://twitter.com/GlennElert",
"https://www.youtube.com/GlennElert" ] }
</script>
<!-- physics.info icons -->
<meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="physics.info">
<meta name="application-name" content="physics.info">
<meta name="msapplication-config" content="https://physics.info/physics/browserconfig.xml">
<meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#001f3d">
<meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff">
<link rel="manifest" href="https://physics.info/physics/site.webmanifest">
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon.png" sizes="180x180">
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon-152x152.png" sizes="152x152">
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon-120x120.png" sizes="120x120">
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon-76x76.png" sizes="76x76">
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://physics.info/physics/apple-touch-icon-60x60.png" sizes="60x60">
<!-- shared icons -->
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://physics.info/favicon.ico" sizes="64x64">
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://physics.info/favicon-48x48.ico" sizes="48x48">
<link rel="icon" href="https://physics.info/favicon-32x32.png" sizes="32x32" type="image/png">
<link rel="icon" href="https://physics.info/favicon-16x16.png" sizes="16x16" type="image/png">
<link rel="mask-icon" href="https://physics.info/safari-pinned-tab.svg" color="#001f3d">
<!-- InMobi Choice. Consent Manager Tag v3.0 (for TCF 2.2) -->
<script type="text/javascript" async="true">
(function() {
var host = window.location.hostname;
var element = document.createElement('script');
var firstScript = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];
var url = 'https://cmp.inmobi.com'
.concat('/choice/', '2cH8w1NPvzsTT', '/', host, '/choice.js?tag_version=V3');
var uspTries = 0;
var uspTriesLimit = 3;
element.async = true;
element.type = 'text/javascript';
element.src = url;
firstScript.parentNode.insertBefore(element, firstScript);
function makeStub() {
var TCF_LOCATOR_NAME = '__tcfapiLocator';
var queue = [];
var win = window;
var cmpFrame;
function addFrame() {
var doc = win.document;
var otherCMP = !!(win.frames[TCF_LOCATOR_NAME]);
if (!otherCMP) {
if (doc.body) {
var iframe = doc.createElement('iframe');
iframe.style.cssText = 'display:none';
iframe.name = TCF_LOCATOR_NAME;
doc.body.appendChild(iframe);
} else {
setTimeout(addFrame, 5);
}
}
return !otherCMP;
}
function tcfAPIHandler() {
var gdprApplies;
var args = arguments;
if (!args.length) {
return queue;
} else if (args[0] === 'setGdprApplies') {
if (
args.length > 3 &&
args[2] === 2 &&
typeof args[3] === 'boolean'
) {
gdprApplies = args[3];
if (typeof args[2] === 'function') {
args[2]('set', true);
}
}
} else if (args[0] === 'ping') {
var retr = {
gdprApplies: gdprApplies,
cmpLoaded: false,
cmpStatus: 'stub'
};
if (typeof args[2] === 'function') {
args[2](retr);
}
} else {
if(args[0] === 'init' && typeof args[3] === 'object') {
args[3] = Object.assign(args[3], { tag_version: 'V3' });
}
queue.push(args);
}
}
function postMessageEventHandler(event) {
var msgIsString = typeof event.data === 'string';
var json = {};
try {
if (msgIsString) {
json = JSON.parse(event.data);
} else {
json = event.data;
}
} catch (ignore) {}
var payload = json.__tcfapiCall;
if (payload) {
window.__tcfapi(
payload.command,
payload.version,
function(retValue, success) {
var returnMsg = {
__tcfapiReturn: {
returnValue: retValue,
success: success,
callId: payload.callId
}
};
if (msgIsString) {
returnMsg = JSON.stringify(returnMsg);
}
if (event && event.source && event.source.postMessage) {
event.source.postMessage(returnMsg, '*');
}
},
payload.parameter
);
}
}
while (win) {
try {
if (win.frames[TCF_LOCATOR_NAME]) {
cmpFrame = win;
break;
}
} catch (ignore) {}
if (win === window.top) {
break;
}
win = win.parent;
}
if (!cmpFrame) {
addFrame();
win.__tcfapi = tcfAPIHandler;
win.addEventListener('message', postMessageEventHandler, false);
}
};
makeStub();
var uspStubFunction = function() {
var arg = arguments;
if (typeof window.__uspapi !== uspStubFunction) {
setTimeout(function() {
if (typeof window.__uspapi !== 'undefined') {
window.__uspapi.apply(window.__uspapi, arg);
}
}, 500);
}
};
var checkIfUspIsReady = function() {
uspTries++;
if (window.__uspapi === uspStubFunction && uspTries < uspTriesLimit) {
console.warn('USP is not accessible');
} else {
clearInterval(uspInterval);
}
};
if (typeof window.__uspapi === 'undefined') {
window.__uspapi = uspStubFunction;
var uspInterval = setInterval(checkIfUspIsReady, 6000);
}
})();
</script>
<!-- End InMobi Choice. Consent Manager Tag v3.0 (for TCF 2.2) -->
<!-- ShareThis -->
<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform-api.sharethis.com/js/sharethis.js#property=64432e98e412510019625a9d&product=sop" async="async"></script>
<!-- Global global site tag (gtag.js) -->
<script async="" src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-K3X8V5NL6L"></script>
<script>
window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || [];
function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);}
gtag('js', new Date());
gtag('config', 'G-K3X8V5NL6L');
</script>
<!-- Google Search -->
<script>
(function() {
var cx = '010156806650563000082:WMX1678554632';
var gcse = document.createElement('script'); gcse.type = 'text/javascript'; gcse.async = true;
gcse.src = (document.location.protocol == 'https:' ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//www.google.com/cse/cse.js?cx=' + cx;
var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(gcse, s);
})();
</script>
<!-- Good old-fashioned meta tags -->
<meta name="description" content="The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics.">
<!-- Facebook Open Graph -->
<meta property="fb:app_id" content="650318438466819">
<meta property="og:type" content="article">
<meta property="og:site_name" content="The Physics Hypertextbook">
<meta property="og:url" content="https://physics.info">
<meta property="og:title" content="The Physics Hypertextbook">
<meta property="og:description" content="The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics.">
<meta property="og:image" content="https://physics.info/physics/og-image.jpg">
<meta property="article:author" content="https://glennelert.us">
<!-- Twitter Card -->
<meta name="twitter:card" content="summary">
<meta name="twitter:site" content="@hypertextbook">
<meta name="twitter:creator" content="@glennelert">
<meta name="twitter:url" content="https://physics.info">
<meta name="twitter:title" content="The Physics Hypertextbook">
<meta name="twitter:description" content="The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics.">
<meta name="twitter:image" content="https://physics.info/physics/og-image.jpg">
<!-- Google's thing that's similar. Web Snippets? Snip Whippets? -->
<meta itemprop="name" content="The Physics Hypertextbook">
<meta itemprop="description" content="The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics.">
<meta itemprop="image" content="https://physics.info/physics/og-image.jpg">
<!-- Google Scholar -->
<meta name="citation_author" content="Glenn Elert">
<meta name="citation_author_email" content="[email protected]">
<meta name="citation_date" content="2023">
<meta name="citation_language" content="en">
<meta name="citation_publisher" content="hypertextbook">
<meta name="citation_title" content="The Physics Hypertextbook"><!-- unique -->
<!-- meta name="citation_inbook_title" content="" --><!-- unique -->
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://omniscientwalnut.com/index.css"><style type="text/css"> .qc-cmp-button.qc-cmp-secondary-button:hover { background-color: #368bd6 !important; border-color: transparent !important; } .qc-cmp-button.qc-cmp-secondary-button:hover { color: #ffffff !important; } .qc-cmp-button.qc-cmp-secondary-button { color: #368bd6 !important; } .qc-cmp-button.qc-cmp-secondary-button { background-color: #eee !important; border-color: transparent !important; } </style><script src="https://www.google.com/cse/static/element/5c8d58cbdc1332a7/cse_element__en.js?usqp=CAM%3D" type="text/javascript"></script><link type="text/css" href="https://www.google.com/cse/static/element/5c8d58cbdc1332a7/default+en.css" rel="stylesheet"><link type="text/css" href="https://www.google.com/cse/static/style/look/v4/minimalist.css" rel="stylesheet"><style type="text/css">.gsc-control-cse{font-family:arial, sans-serif}.gsc-control-cse .gsc-table-result{font-family:arial, sans-serif}.gsc-refinementsGradient{background:linear-gradient(to left,rgba(119,119,119,1),rgba(119,119,119,0))}.gsc-control-cse{border-color:#FFFFFF;background-color:#FFFFFF}input.gsc-input,.gsc-input-box,.gsc-input-box-hover,.gsc-input-box-focus{border-color:#777777}.gsc-search-button-v2,.gsc-search-button-v2:hover,.gsc-search-button-v2:focus{border-color:#333333;background-color:#333333;background-image:none;filter:none}.gsc-search-button-v2 svg{fill:#FFFFFF}.gsc-tabHeader.gsc-tabhActive,.gsc-refinementHeader.gsc-refinementhActive{color:#FFFFFF;border-color:#FFFFFF;background-color:#333333}.gsc-tabHeader.gsc-tabhInactive,.gsc-refinementHeader.gsc-refinementhInactive{color:#FFFFFF;border-color:#FFFFFF;background-color:#777777}.gsc-webResult.gsc-result,.gsc-results .gsc-imageResult{border-color:#FFFFFF;background-color:#FFFFFF}.gsc-webResult.gsc-result:hover{border-color:#000000;background-color:#FFFFFF}.gs-webResult.gs-result a.gs-title:link,.gs-webResult.gs-result a.gs-title:link b,.gs-imageResult a.gs-title:link,.gs-imageResult a.gs-title:link b{color:#0000EF}.gs-webResult.gs-result a.gs-title:visited,.gs-webResult.gs-result a.gs-title:visited b,.gs-imageResult a.gs-title:visited,.gs-imageResult a.gs-title:visited b{color:#531D8B}.gs-webResult.gs-result a.gs-title:hover,.gs-webResult.gs-result a.gs-title:hover b,.gs-imageResult a.gs-title:hover,.gs-imageResult a.gs-title:hover b{color:#970000}.gs-webResult.gs-result a.gs-title:active,.gs-webResult.gs-result a.gs-title:active b,.gs-imageResult a.gs-title:active,.gs-imageResult a.gs-title:active b{color:#FF0000}.gsc-cursor-page{color:#0000EF}a.gsc-trailing-more-results:link{color:#0000EF}.gs-webResult:not(.gs-no-results-result):not(.gs-error-result) .gs-snippet,.gs-fileFormatType{color:#000000}.gs-webResult div.gs-visibleUrl{color:#000000}.gs-webResult div.gs-visibleUrl-short{color:#000000}.gsc-cursor-box{border-color:#FFFFFF}.gsc-results .gsc-cursor-box .gsc-cursor-page{border-color:#FFFFFF;background-color:#777777;color:#FFFFFF}.gsc-results .gsc-cursor-box .gsc-cursor-current-page{border-color:#FFFFFF;background-color:#333333;color:#FFFFFF}.gsc-webResult.gsc-result.gsc-promotion{border-color:#336699;background-color:#FFFFFF}.gsc-completion-title{color:#0000EF}.gsc-completion-snippet{color:#000000}.gs-promotion a.gs-title:link,.gs-promotion a.gs-title:link *,.gs-promotion .gs-snippet a:link{color:#0000FF}.gs-promotion a.gs-title:visited,.gs-promotion a.gs-title:visited *,.gs-promotion .gs-snippet a:visited{color:#663399}.gs-promotion a.gs-title:hover,.gs-promotion a.gs-title:hover *,.gs-promotion .gs-snippet a:hover{color:#0000FF}.gs-promotion a.gs-title:active,.gs-promotion a.gs-title:active *,.gs-promotion .gs-snippet a:active{color:#0000FF}.gs-promotion .gs-snippet,.gs-promotion .gs-title .gs-promotion-title-right,.gs-promotion .gs-title .gs-promotion-title-right *{color:#000000}.gs-promotion .gs-visibleUrl,.gs-promotion .gs-visibleUrl-short{color:#008000}.gcsc-find-more-on-google{color:#0000EF}.gcsc-find-more-on-google-magnifier{fill:#0000EF}</style><style type="text/css">.gscb_a{display:inline-block;font:27px/13px arial,sans-serif}.gsst_a .gscb_a{color:#a1b9ed;cursor:pointer}.gsst_a:hover .gscb_a,.gsst_a:focus .gscb_a{color:#36c}.gsst_a{display:inline-block}.gsst_a{cursor:pointer;padding:0 4px}.gsst_a:hover{text-decoration:none!important}.gsst_b{font-size:16px;padding:0 2px;position:relative;user-select:none;-webkit-user-select:none;white-space:nowrap}.gsst_e{vertical-align:middle;opacity:0.55;}.gsst_a:hover .gsst_e,.gsst_a:focus .gsst_e{opacity:0.72;}.gsst_a:active .gsst_e{opacity:1;}.gsst_f{background:white;text-align:left}.gsst_g{background-color:white;border:1px solid #ccc;border-top-color:#d9d9d9;box-shadow:0 2px 4px rgba(0,0,0,0.2);-webkit-box-shadow:0 2px 4px rgba(0,0,0,0.2);margin:-1px -3px;padding:0 6px}.gsst_h{background-color:white;height:1px;margin-bottom:-1px;position:relative;top:-1px}.gsib_a{width:100%;padding:4px 6px 0}.gsib_a,.gsib_b{vertical-align:top}.gssb_c{border:0;position:absolute;z-index:989}.gssb_e{border:1px solid #ccc;border-top-color:#d9d9d9;box-shadow:0 2px 4px rgba(0,0,0,0.2);-webkit-box-shadow:0 2px 4px rgba(0,0,0,0.2);cursor:default}.gssb_f{visibility:hidden;white-space:nowrap}.gssb_k{border:0;display:block;position:absolute;top:0;z-index:988}.gsdd_a{border:none!important}.gsq_a{padding:0}.gssb_a{padding:0 7px}.gssb_a,.gssb_a td{white-space:nowrap;overflow:hidden;line-height:22px}#gssb_b{font-size:11px;color:#36c;text-decoration:none}#gssb_b:hover{font-size:11px;color:#36c;text-decoration:underline}.gssb_g{text-align:center;padding:8px 0 7px;position:relative}.gssb_h{font-size:15px;height:28px;margin:0.2em;-webkit-appearance:button}.gssb_i{background:#eee}.gss_ifl{visibility:hidden;padding-left:5px}.gssb_i .gss_ifl{visibility:visible}a.gssb_j{font-size:13px;color:#36c;text-decoration:none;line-height:100%}a.gssb_j:hover{text-decoration:underline}.gssb_l{height:1px;background-color:#e5e5e5}.gssb_m{color:#000;background:#fff}.gssb_a{padding:0 9px}.gsib_a{padding:5px 9px 4px 9px}.gscb_a{line-height:27px}.gssb_e{border:0}.gssb_l{margin:5px 0}input.gsc-input::-webkit-input-placeholder{font-size:14px}input.gsc-input:-moz-placeholder{font-size:14px}input.gsc-input::-moz-placeholder{font-size:14px}input.gsc-input:-ms-input-placeholder{font-size:14px}input.gsc-input:focus::-webkit-input-placeholder{color:transparent}input.gsc-input:focus:-moz-placeholder{color:transparent}input.gsc-input:focus::-moz-placeholder{color:transparent}input.gsc-input:focus:-ms-input-placeholder{color:transparent}.gssb_c .gsc-completion-container{position:static}.gssb_c{z-index:5000}.gsc-completion-container table{background:transparent;font-size:inherit;font-family:inherit}.gssb_c > tbody > tr,.gssb_c > tbody > tr > td,.gssb_d,.gssb_d > tbody > tr,.gssb_d > tbody > tr > td,.gssb_e,.gssb_e > tbody > tr,.gssb_e > tbody > tr > td{padding:0;margin:0;border:0}.gssb_a table,.gssb_a table tr,.gssb_a table tr td{padding:0;margin:0;border:0}</style><script type="text/javascript" id="__tcfapiuiscript" src="https://cmp.inmobi.com/tcfv2/53/cmp2ui-en.js"></script><style qc-data-emotion="css-global" data-s=""></style><style qc-data-emotion="css" data-s=""></style><style type="text/css">#st-1 {
font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;;
direction: ltr;
display: block;
opacity: 1;
text-align: center;
z-index: 94034;
}
#st-1.st-animated {
-moz-transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in; -ms-transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in; -o-transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in; -webkit-transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in; transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in;
}
#st-1.st-hidden {
opacity: 0;
}
#st-1.st-preview {
display: none!important;
opacity: 0!important;
}
#st-1.st-hide {
display: none;
}
#st-1 .st-btn {
-moz-box-sizing: border-box;
-webkit-box-sizing: border-box;
box-sizing: border-box;
-moz-transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in; -ms-transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in; -o-transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in; -webkit-transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in; transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in;
-moz-border-radius: 0px;
-webkit-border-radius: 0px;
border-radius: 0px;
border: none;
cursor: pointer;
display: inline-block;
font-size: 11px;
height: 32px;
line-height: 32px;
margin-right: 0;
padding: 0 10px;
position: relative;
text-align: center;
top: 0;
vertical-align: top;
white-space: nowrap;
}
#st-1 .st-btn:last-child {
margin-right: 0;
}
#st-1 .st-btn > svg {
height: 16px;
width: 16px;
position: relative;
top: 8px;
vertical-align: top;
}
#st-1 .st-btn > img {
display: inline-block;
height: 16px;
width: 16px;
position: relative;
top: 8px;
vertical-align: top;
}
#st-1 .st-btn > span {
-moz-transition: all 0.2s ease-in; -ms-transition: all 0.2s ease-in; -o-transition: all 0.2s ease-in; -webkit-transition: all 0.2s ease-in; transition: all 0.2s ease-in;
color: #fff;
display: inline-block;
font-weight: 500;
letter-spacing: 0.5px;
min-width: 60px;
opacity: 1;
padding: 0 6px;
position: relative;
vertical-align: top;
}
#st-1.st-has-labels .st-btn {
min-width: 120px;
}
#st-1.st-has-labels .st-btn.st-remove-label {
min-width: 50px;
}
#st-1.st-has-labels .st-btn.st-remove-label > span {
display: none;
}
#st-1.st-has-labels .st-btn.st-hide-label > span {
display: none;
}
#st-1 .st-total {
color: #555;
display: inline-block;
font-weight: 500;
line-height: 12px;
margin-right: 0;
max-width: 80px;
padding: 4px 8px;
text-align: center;
}
#st-1 .st-total.st-hidden {
display: none;
}
#st-1 .st-total > span {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 17px;
display: block;
padding: 0;
}
#st-1 .st-total > span.st-shares {
font-size: 9px;
line-height: 9px;
}
#st-1.st-justified {
display: flex;
text-align: center;
}
#st-1.st-justified .st-btn {
-moz-flex: 1;
-ms-flex: 1;
-webkit-flex: 1;
flex: 1;
}#st-1 .st-btn:hover {
opacity: .8;
top: -4px;
}#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='facebook'] {
background-color: #4267B2
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='facebook'] img {
filter:
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='facebook'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='twitter'] {
background-color: #000000
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='twitter'] img {
filter:
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='twitter'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='print'] {
background-color: #222222
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='print'] img {
filter:
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='print'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='whatsapp'] {
background-color: #25d366
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='whatsapp'] img {
filter:
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='whatsapp'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='messenger'] {
background-color: #448AFF
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='messenger'] img {
filter:
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='messenger'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='reddit'] {
background-color: #ff4500
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='reddit'] img {
filter:
}
#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='reddit'] > span {
color: #fff
}#st-1 .st-btn[data-network='snapchat'] > span {
color: #333};
}</style><style type="text/css">#st-2 {
font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Verdana, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;;
direction: ltr;
display: block;
opacity: 1;
text-align: center;
z-index: 94034;
}
#st-2.st-animated {
-moz-transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in; -ms-transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in; -o-transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in; -webkit-transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in; transition: o 0.2s ease-in, p 0.2s ease-in, a 0.2s ease-in, c 0.2s ease-in, i 0.2s ease-in, t 0.2s ease-in, y 0.2s ease-in;
}
#st-2.st-hidden {
opacity: 0;
}
#st-2.st-preview {
display: none!important;
opacity: 0!important;
}
#st-2.st-hide {
display: none;
}
#st-2 .st-btn {
-moz-box-sizing: border-box;
-webkit-box-sizing: border-box;
box-sizing: border-box;
-moz-transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in; -ms-transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in; -o-transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in; -webkit-transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in; transition: opacity 0.2s ease-in, top 0.2s ease-in;
-moz-border-radius: 0px;
-webkit-border-radius: 0px;
border-radius: 0px;
border: none;
cursor: pointer;
display: inline-block;
font-size: 11px;
height: 32px;
line-height: 32px;
margin-right: 0;
padding: 0 10px;
position: relative;
text-align: center;
top: 0;
vertical-align: top;
white-space: nowrap;
}
#st-2 .st-btn:last-child {
margin-right: 0;
}
#st-2 .st-btn > svg {
height: 16px;
width: 16px;
position: relative;
top: 8px;
vertical-align: top;
}
#st-2 .st-btn > img {
display: inline-block;
height: 16px;
width: 16px;
position: relative;
top: 8px;
vertical-align: top;
}
#st-2 .st-btn > span {
-moz-transition: all 0.2s ease-in; -ms-transition: all 0.2s ease-in; -o-transition: all 0.2s ease-in; -webkit-transition: all 0.2s ease-in; transition: all 0.2s ease-in;
color: #fff;
display: inline-block;
font-weight: 500;
letter-spacing: 0.5px;
min-width: 60px;
opacity: 1;
padding: 0 6px;
position: relative;
vertical-align: top;
}
#st-2.st-has-labels .st-btn {
min-width: 120px;
}
#st-2.st-has-labels .st-btn.st-remove-label {
min-width: 50px;
}
#st-2.st-has-labels .st-btn.st-remove-label > span {
display: none;
}
#st-2.st-has-labels .st-btn.st-hide-label > span {
display: none;
}
#st-2 .st-total {
color: #555;
display: inline-block;
font-weight: 500;
line-height: 12px;
margin-right: 0;
max-width: 80px;
padding: 4px 8px;
text-align: center;
}
#st-2 .st-total.st-hidden {
display: none;
}
#st-2 .st-total > span {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 17px;
display: block;
padding: 0;
}
#st-2 .st-total > span.st-shares {
font-size: 9px;
line-height: 9px;
}
#st-2.st-justified {
display: flex;
text-align: center;
}
#st-2.st-justified .st-btn {
-moz-flex: 1;
-ms-flex: 1;
-webkit-flex: 1;
flex: 1;
}#st-2 .st-btn:hover {
opacity: .8;
top: -4px;
}#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='facebook'] {
background-color: #4267B2
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='facebook'] img {
filter:
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='facebook'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='twitter'] {
background-color: #000000
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='twitter'] img {
filter:
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='twitter'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='print'] {
background-color: #222222
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='print'] img {
filter:
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='print'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='whatsapp'] {
background-color: #25d366
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='whatsapp'] img {
filter:
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='whatsapp'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='messenger'] {
background-color: #448AFF
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='messenger'] img {
filter:
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='messenger'] > span {
color: #fff
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='reddit'] {
background-color: #ff4500
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='reddit'] img {
filter:
}
#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='reddit'] > span {
color: #fff
}#st-2 .st-btn[data-network='snapchat'] > span {
color: #333};
}</style></head>
<body><div class="qc-cmp2-container" id="qc-cmp2-container" data-nosnippet=""><div class="qc-cmp2-main" id="qc-cmp2-main" data-nosnippet=""><div height="600" class="qc-cmp-cleanslate css-1j1wpfg"><div id="qc-cmp2-ui" role="dialog" aria-label="qc-cmp2-ui" aria-modal="true" tabindex="0" class="css-1t8ry4d"><div class="qc-cmp2-summary-section"><div class="qc-cmp2-consent-info"><div class="qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container"><figure><div height="96" width="96" class="logo-container css-1gxg4jv"><img alt="Publisher Logo" src="https://omniscientwalnut.com/eglobe-quantcast.svg?qc-size=96,96"></div><h2>We value your privacy</h2></figure><div class="qc-cmp2-summary-info qc-cmp2-logo-displayed"><div class=""> We and our <button mode="link" class="qc-cmp2-link-inline css-1sjf9qp" size="large">partners</button> store and/or access information on a device, such as cookies and process personal data, such as unique identifiers and standard information sent by a device for personalised advertising and content, advertising and content measurement, audience research and services development. With your permission we and our partners may use precise geolocation data and identification through device scanning. You may click to consent to our and our 870 partners’ processing as described above. Alternatively you may click to refuse to consent or access more detailed information and change your preferences before consenting. Please note that some processing of your personal data may not require your consent, but you have a right to object to such processing. Your preferences will apply to this website only. You can change your preferences or withdraw your consent at any time by returning to this site and clicking the "Privacy" button at the bottom of the webpage. </div></div></div></div></div><div class="qc-cmp2-footer qc-cmp2-footer-overlay qc-cmp2-footer-scrolled"><div class="qc-cmp2-summary-buttons"><button mode="secondary" size="large" class=" css-1hy2vtq"><span>MORE OPTIONS</span></button><button mode="secondary" size="large" class=" css-1hy2vtq"><span>DISAGREE</span></button><button mode="primary" size="large" class=" css-47sehv"><span>AGREE</span></button></div></div></div></div></div></div>
<header>
<nav><ul><li title="The Chaos Hypertextbook
Mathematics in the age of the computer"><a href="https://hypertextbook.com/chaos/" target="_top">chaos</a></li><li title="E-World
Articles, essays, ideas, opinions, unabridged"><a href="https://hypertextbook.com/eworld/" target="_top">eworld</a></li><li title="The Physics Factbook
An encyclopedia of scientific essays"><a href="https://hypertextbook.com/facts/" target="_top">facts</a></li><li title="Get Bent
Coast to coast by recumbent bicycle"><a href="https://hypertextbook.com/bent/" target="_top">get bent</a></li><li title="The Physics Hypertextbook
A work in progress" class="selected"><a href="https://physics.info" target="_top">physics</a></li></ul></nav>
<div class="title" title="The Physics Hypertextbook"><a href="https://physics.info" target="_top">The Physics<br>Hypertextbook</a></div><div class="subtitle" title="A work in progress"><a href="https://physics.info/about/" target="_top">Opus in profectus</a></div>
<nav><ul><li>… <a href="https://physics.info/people/" target="_top" id="topic-prev" title="The previous topic">people</a></li><li class="selected"><a href="./" target="_top" title="The current topic">welcome</a></li><li><a href="https://physics.info/about/" target="_top" id="topic-next" title="The next topic">about</a> …</li></ul></nav>
</header>
<article id="foreheadless">
<header>
<h1>Welcome</h1>
<nav>
<ul>
<li>discuss<span class="tight">ion</span></li>
<li>summary</li>
<li>practice</li>
<li>problems</li>
<li>resources</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<div class="add add-yes"><div class="sharethis-inline-share-buttons st-center st-inline-share-buttons st-animated" id="st-1"><div class="st-btn st-first" data-network="facebook" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="facebook sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/facebook.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn" data-network="twitter" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="twitter sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/twitter.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn" data-network="print" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="print sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/print.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn" data-network="whatsapp" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="whatsapp sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/whatsapp.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn" data-network="messenger" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="messenger sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/messenger.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn st-last" data-network="reddit" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="reddit sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/reddit.svg">
</div></div><span class="add-goo"><a href="#search"><img src="https://omniscientwalnut.com/search.svg" alt="search icon" title="Search this site"></a></span></div><div id="search" class="overlay"><div class="popup shadow"><a class="close" href="#" title="Close this window">[close]</a><div id="___gcse_0"><div class="gsc-control-searchbox-only gsc-control-searchbox-only-en" dir="ltr"><form class="gsc-search-box gsc-search-box-tools" accept-charset="utf-8"><table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" role="presentation" class="gsc-search-box"><tbody><tr><td class="gsc-input"><div class="gsc-input-box" id="gsc-iw-id1"><table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" role="presentation" id="gs_id50" class="gstl_50 gsc-input" style="width: 100%; padding: 0px;"><tbody><tr><td id="gs_tti50" class="gsib_a"><input autocomplete="off" type="text" size="10" class="gsc-input" name="search" title="search" aria-label="search" id="gsc-i-id1" dir="ltr" spellcheck="false" style="width: 100%; padding: 0px; border: none; margin: 0px; height: auto; background: url("https://www.google.com/cse/static/images/1x/en/branding.png") left center no-repeat rgb(255, 255, 255); outline: none;"></td><td class="gsib_b"><div class="gsst_b" id="gs_st50" dir="ltr"><a class="gsst_a" href="javascript:void(0)" title="Clear search box" role="button" style="display: none;"><span class="gscb_a" id="gs_cb50" aria-hidden="true">×</span></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td><td class="gsc-search-button"><button class="gsc-search-button gsc-search-button-v2"><svg width="13" height="13" viewBox="0 0 13 13"><title>search</title><path d="m4.8495 7.8226c0.82666 0 1.5262-0.29146 2.0985-0.87438 0.57232-0.58292 0.86378-1.2877 0.87438-2.1144 0.010599-0.82666-0.28086-1.5262-0.87438-2.0985-0.59352-0.57232-1.293-0.86378-2.0985-0.87438-0.8055-0.010599-1.5103 0.28086-2.1144 0.87438-0.60414 0.59352-0.8956 1.293-0.87438 2.0985 0.021197 0.8055 0.31266 1.5103 0.87438 2.1144 0.56172 0.60414 1.2665 0.8956 2.1144 0.87438zm4.4695 0.2115 3.681 3.6819-1.259 1.284-3.6817-3.7 0.0019784-0.69479-0.090043-0.098846c-0.87973 0.76087-1.92 1.1413-3.1207 1.1413-1.3553 0-2.5025-0.46363-3.4417-1.3909s-1.4088-2.0686-1.4088-3.4239c0-1.3553 0.4696-2.4966 1.4088-3.4239 0.9392-0.92727 2.0864-1.3969 3.4417-1.4088 1.3553-0.011889 2.4906 0.45771 3.406 1.4088 0.9154 0.95107 1.379 2.0924 1.3909 3.4239 0 1.2126-0.38043 2.2588-1.1413 3.1385l0.098834 0.090049z"></path></svg></button></td><td class="gsc-clear-button"><div class="gsc-clear-button" title="clear results"> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></form></div></div></div></div>
</header>
<section id="toc">
<!-- #BeginEditable "body" -->
<h2>Table of Contents</h2>
<script>
function loadCSS(filename)
{ var file = document.createElement("link")
file.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet")
file.setAttribute("type", "text/css")
file.setAttribute("href", filename)
if (typeof file !== "undefined") document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(file) }
loadCSS("https://omniscientwalnut.com/index.css")
</script>
<nav style="margin:0em auto; width:28em; max-width:100%;">
<a href="#mechanics">mechanics</a>,
<a href="#thermal">thermal physics</a>,
<a href="#waves">waves & optics</a>,
<a href="#electricity">electricity & magentism</a>,
<a href="#modern">modern physics</a>,
<a href="#foundations">foundations</a>,
<a href="#back">back matter</a>
</nav>
<!-- Inline CSS is the tool of the devil. My home page gets 40 rods to the hogshead and that's the way I likes it. -->
<nav>
<ol>
<li style="-webkit-column-break-before:avoid; break-before:avoid;" id="mechanics">Mechanics
<ol>
<li>Kinematics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/motion/" target="_top">Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/displacement/" target="_top">Distance and Displacement</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/velocity/" target="_top">Speed and Velocity</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/acceleration/" target="_top">Acceleration</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/motion-equations/" target="_top">Equations of Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/falling/" target="_top">Free Fall</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/motion-graphs/" target="_top">Graphs of Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/kinematics-calculus/" target="_top">Kinematics and Calculus</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/kinematics-2d/" target="_top">Kinematics in Two Dimensions</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/projectiles/" target="_top">Projectiles</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/parametric/" target="_top">Parametric Equations</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Dynamics I: Force
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/newton-first/" target="_top">Forces</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/newton-second/" target="_top">Force and Mass</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/newton-third/" target="_top">Action-Reaction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/weight/" target="_top">Weight</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/dynamics/" target="_top">Dynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/statics/" target="_top">Statics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/friction/" target="_top">Friction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/force-2d/" target="_top">Forces in Two Dimensions</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/centripetal/" target="_top">Centripetal Force</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/frames/" target="_top">Frames of Reference</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Energy
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/work/" target="_top">Work</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/energy/" target="_top">Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/energy-kinetic/" target="_top">Kinetic Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/energy-potential/" target="_top">Potential Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/energy-conservation/" target="_top">Conservation of Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/power/" target="_top">Power</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/machines/" target="_top">Simple Machines</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Dynamics II: Momentum
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/momentum/" target="_top">Impulse and Momentum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/momentum-conservation/" target="_top">Conservation of Momentum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/momentum-energy/" target="_top">Momentum and Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/momentum-2d/" target="_top">Momentum in Two Dimensions</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Rotational Motion
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-kinematics/" target="_top">Rotational Kinematics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-inertia/" target="_top">Rotational Inertia</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-dynamics/" target="_top">Rotational Dynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-statics/" target="_top">Rotational Statics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-momentum/" target="_top">Angular Momentum</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-energy/" target="_top">Rotational Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/rolling/" target="_top">Rolling</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/rotational-2d/" target="_top">Rotation in Two Dimensions</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/coriolis/" target="_top">Coriolis Force</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Planetary Motion
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/geocentrism/" target="_top">Geocentrism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/heliocentrism/" target="_top">Heliocentrism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/gravitation/" target="_top">Universal Gravitation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/orbital-mechanics-1/" target="_top">Orbital Mechanics I</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/gravitation-energy/" target="_top">Gravitational Potential Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/orbital-mechanics-2/" target="_top">Orbital Mechanics II</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/gravitation-extended/" target="_top">Gravity of Extended Bodies</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Periodic Motion
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/springs/" target="_top">Springs</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/sho/" target="_top">Simple Harmonic Oscillator</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/pendulum/" target="_top">Pendulums</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/resonance/" target="_top">Resonance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/elasticity/" target="_top">Elasticity</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Fluids
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/density/" target="_top">Density</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/pressure/" target="_top">Pressure</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/buoyancy/" target="_top">Buoyancy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/flow/" target="_top">Fluid Flow</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/viscosity/" target="_top">Viscosity</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/drag/" target="_top">Aerodynamic Drag</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/turbulence/" target="_top">Flow Regimes</a></li>
</ol></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="-webkit-column-break-before:always; break-before:column;" id="thermal">Thermal Physics
<ol>
<li>Heat & Temperature
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/temperature/" target="_top">Temperature</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/expansion/" target="_top">Thermal Expansion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/atoms/" target="_top">The Atomic Nature of Matter</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/gas-laws/" target="_top">Gas Laws</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/kmt/" target="_top">Kinetic-Molecular Theory</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/phases/" target="_top">Phases</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Calorimetry
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/heat-sensible/" target="_top">Sensible Heat</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/heat-latent/" target="_top">Latent Heat</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/energy-chemical/" target="_top">Chemical Potential Energy</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Heat Transfer
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/conduction/" target="_top">Conduction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/convection/" target="_top">Convection</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/radiation/" target="_top">Radiation</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Thermodynamics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/thermo-first/" target="_top">Heat and Work</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/pressure-volume/" target="_top">Pressure-Volume Diagrams</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/engines/" target="_top">Engines</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/refrigerators/" target="_top">Refrigerators</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/thermo-second/" target="_top">Energy and Entropy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/thermo-third/" target="_top">Absolute Zero</a></li>
</ol></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="-webkit-column-break-before:avoid; break-before:avoid;" id="waves">Waves & Optics
<ol>
<li>Wave Phenomena
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/waves/" target="_top">The Nature of Waves</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/waves-periodic/" target="_top">Periodic Waves</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/interference/" target="_top">Interference and Superposition</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/interface/" target="_top">Interfaces and Barriers</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Sound
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/sound/" target="_top">The Nature of Sound</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/intensity/" target="_top">Intensity</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/doppler-sound/" target="_top">Doppler Effect (Sound)</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/shock/" target="_top">Shock Waves</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/interference-sound/" target="_top">Diffraction and Interference (Sound)</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/waves-standing/" target="_top">Standing Waves</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/beats/" target="_top">Beats</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/music/" target="_top">Music and Noise</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Physical Optics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/light/" target="_top">The Nature of Light</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/polarization/" target="_top">Polarization</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/doppler-light/" target="_top">Doppler Effect (Light)</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/cerenkov/" target="_top">Cerenkov Radiation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/interference-light/" target="_top">Diffraction and Interference (Light)</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/thin-films/" target="_top">Thin Film Interference</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/color/" target="_top">Color</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Geometric Optics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/reflection/" target="_top">Reflection</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/refraction/" target="_top">Refraction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/mirrors/" target="_top">Spherical Mirrors</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/lenses/" target="_top">Spherical Lenses</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/aberration/" target="_top">Aberration</a></li>
</ol></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="-webkit-column-break-before:always; break-before:column;" id="electricity">Electricity & Magnetism
<ol>
<li>Electrostatics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/charge/" target="_top">Electric Charge</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/coulomb/" target="_top">Coulomb's Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-field/" target="_top">Electric Field</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-potential/" target="_top">Electric Potential</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/law-gauss/" target="_top">Gauss's Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/conductors/" target="_top">Conductors</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Electrostatic Applications
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/capacitors/" target="_top">Capacitors</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/dielectrics/" target="_top">Dielectrics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/batteries/" target="_top">Batteries</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Electric Current
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-current/" target="_top">Electric Current</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-resistance/" target="_top">Electric Resistance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/electric-power/" target="_top">Electric Power</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>DC Circuits
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-r/" target="_top">Resistors in Circuits</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-v/" target="_top">Batteries in Circuits</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-c/" target="_top">Capacitors in Circuits</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/kirchhoff/" target="_top">Kirchhoff's Rules</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Magnetostatics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/magnetism/" target="_top">Magnetism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/electromagnetism/" target="_top">Electromagnetism</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/law-ampere/" target="_top">Ampère's Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/lorentz/" target="_top">Electromagnetic Force</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Magnetodynamics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/induction/" target="_top">Electromagnetic Induction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/law-faraday/" target="_top">Faraday's Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/lenz/" target="_top">Lenz' Law</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/inductance/" target="_top">Inductance</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>AC Circuits
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-rc/" target="_top">RC Circuits</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-rl/" target="_top">RL Circuits</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/circuits-rlc/" target="_top">LC Circuits</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/current-alternating/" target="_top">Alternating Current</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/impedance/" target="_top">Impedance</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Electromagnetic Waves
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/maxwell/" target="_top">Maxwell's Equations</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/em-waves/" target="_top">Electromagnetic Waves</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/em-spectrum/" target="_top">Electromagnetic Spectrum</a></li>
</ol></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="-webkit-column-break-before:always; break-before:column;" id="modern">Modern Physics
<ol>
<li>Relativity
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/space-time/" target="_top">Space-Time</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/mass-energy/" target="_top">Mass-Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/general-relativity/" target="_top">General Relativity</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Quanta
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/planck/" target="_top">Blackbody Radiation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/photoelectric/" target="_top">Photoelectric Effect</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/x-ray/" target="_top">X-rays</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/antimatter/" target="_top">Antimatter</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Wave Mechanics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/debroglie/" target="_top">Matter Waves</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/atomic-models/" target="_top">Atomic Models</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/semiconductors/" target="_top">Semiconductors</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/condensed-matter/" target="_top">Condensed Matter</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Nuclear Physics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/isotopes/" target="_top">Isotopes</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/decay/" target="_top">Radioactive Decay</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/half-life/" target="_top">Half Life</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/binding/" target="_top">Binding Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/fission/" target="_top">Fission</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/fusion/" target="_top">Fusion</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/nucleosynthesis/" target="_top">Nucleosynthesis</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/weapons/" target="_top">Nuclear Weapons</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/radiobiology/" target="_top">Radiobiology</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Particle Physics
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/standard/" target="_top">The Standard Model</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/qed/" target="_top">Quantum Electrodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/qcd/" target="_top">Quantum Chromodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/qfd/" target="_top">Quantum Flavordynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/beyond/" target="_top">Beyond the Standard Model</a></li>
</ol></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="-webkit-column-break-before:avoid; break-before:avoid;" id="foundations">Foundations
<ol>
<li>Units
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/system-international/" target="_top">International System of Units</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/system-gaussian/" target="_top">Gaussian System of Units</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/system-english/" target="_top">British-American System of Units</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/system-miscellaneous/" target="_top">Miscellaneous Units</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/time/" target="_top">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/unit-conversion/" target="_top">Unit Conversion</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Measurement
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/significant-digits/" target="_top">Significant Digits</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/orders-magnitude/" target="_top">Order of Magnitude</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Graphs
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/graphs/" target="_top">Graphical Representation of Data</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/linear-regression/" target="_top">Linear Regression</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/curve-fitting/" target="_top">Curve Fitting</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/calculus/" target="_top">Calculus</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Vectors
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/trigonometry/" target="_top">Trigonometry</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/vector-addition/" target="_top">Vector Addition and Subtraction</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/vector-components/" target="_top">Vector Resolution and Components</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/vector-multiplication/" target="_top">Vector Multiplication</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Reference
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/symbols/" target="_top">Special Symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/equations/" target="_top">Frequently Used Equations</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/constants/" target="_top">Physical Constants</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/astronomical/" target="_top">Astronomical Data</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/periodic-table/" target="_top">Periodic Table of the Elements</a></li>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/people/" target="_top">People in Physics</a></li>
</ol></li>
</ol></li>
<li style="-webkit-column-break-before:avoid; break-before:avoid;" id="back">Back matter
<ol>
<li>Preface
<ol>
<li><a href="https://physics.info/about/" target="_top">About this book</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Contact the author
<ol>
<li><a href="https://glennelert.us" rel="me" target="_blank">glennelert.us</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.behance.net/elert" rel="me" target="_blank">Behance</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.instagram.com/elert" rel="me" target="_blank">Instagram</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.twitter.com/glennelert" rel="me" target="_blank">Twitter</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/GlennElert" rel="me" target="_blank">YouTube</a></li>
</ol></li>
<li>Affiliated websites
<ol>
<li><a href="https://hypertextbook.com" rel="me" title="Hypertextbook" target="_blank">hypertextbook.com</a></li>
<li><a href="http://midwoodscience.org" rel="me" title="Midwood High School Science Research Program" target="_blank">midwoodscience.org</a></li>
</ol></li>
</ol></li>
</ol>
</nav>
<!-- Move to the window's forehead with jQuery. -->
<script>
$('html,body').delay(1000).animate({scrollTop: $('#forehead').offset().top },500);
</script>
<!-- #EndEditable -->
</section>
<footer>
<div class="add add-yes"><div class="sharethis-inline-share-buttons st-center st-inline-share-buttons st-animated" id="st-2"><div class="st-btn st-first" data-network="facebook" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="facebook sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/facebook.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn" data-network="twitter" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="twitter sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/twitter.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn" data-network="print" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="print sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/print.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn" data-network="whatsapp" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="whatsapp sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/whatsapp.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn" data-network="messenger" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="messenger sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/messenger.svg">
</div><div class="st-btn st-last" data-network="reddit" style="display: inline-block;">
<img alt="reddit sharing button" src="https://platform-cdn.sharethis.com/img/reddit.svg">
</div></div><span class="add-goo"><a href="#search"><img src="https://omniscientwalnut.com/search.svg" alt="search icon" title="Search this site"></a></span></div>
<nav>
<ul>
<li>discuss<span class="tight">ion</span></li>
<li>summary</li>
<li>practice</li>
<li>problems</li>
<li>resources</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<h1>Welcome</h1>
</footer>
</article>
<footer>
<nav><ul><li>… <a href="https://physics.info/people/" target="_top" title="The previous topic">people</a></li><li class="selected"><a href="./" title="The current topic">welcome</a></li><li><a href="https://physics.info/about/" target="_top" title="The next topic">about</a> …</li></ul></nav>
<div class="signature"><span><a href="https://hypertextbook.com" target="_top"><img src="https://omniscientwalnut.com/eglobe.svg" title="hypertextbook.com" alt="eglobe logo"></a></span><span><a href="https://physics.info" target="_top" title="Opus in profectus">The Physics Hypertextbook</a><br><a href="https://glennelert.us" target="_blank" title="Say my name. You know who I am.">©1998–2024 Glenn Elert<br>Author, Illustrator, Webmaster</a></span></div><p title="No condition is permanent">No condition is permanent.</p>
<!-- no second toe --><!-- unique -->
</footer>
<script defer="" src="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com/beacon.min.js/vcd15cbe7772f49c399c6a5babf22c1241717689176015" integrity="sha512-ZpsOmlRQV6y907TI0dKBHq9Md29nnaEIPlkf84rnaERnq6zvWvPUqr2ft8M1aS28oN72PdrCzSjY4U6VaAw1EQ==" data-cf-beacon="{"rayId":"8f2c0f916b142160","version":"2024.10.5","r":1,"serverTiming":{"name":{"cfExtPri":true,"cfL4":true,"cfSpeedBrain":true,"cfCacheStatus":true}},"token":"67ac9233ee544d4daef07aad23e503e2","b":1}" crossorigin="anonymous"></script>
<iframe name="__tcfapiLocator" style="display: none;"></iframe><table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" role="presentation" class="gstl_50 gssb_c" style="width: 262px; display: none; top: 265px; left: 192px; position: absolute;"><tbody><tr><td class="gssb_f"></td><td class="gssb_e" style="width: 100%;"></td></tr></tbody></table></body></html>